Mapping and Conceptualization of Metaphors in the Works of Attar of Nishapur Concerning Journey, Travel, Movement, and Carnal Desires

Abstract

Sufism represents a journey from the lowest levels of the egoic self to its highest spiritual states. The Sufi is, in fact, a spiritual traveler who, at every stage of the mystical path, distances himself from self-centeredness and egotism and gradually approaches the higher self or divine soul. In religious interpretation, the human being is considered a microcosmic representation and reflection of the universe; thus, whatever exists in the cosmos is also embedded within human existence. Viewing the universe as the macrocosm and the human being as the microcosm reveals the intrinsic connection between Sufism and the concepts of journeying and travel. Sufism assists individuals in undertaking an inward journey toward self-knowledge. Through overcoming internal obstacles and the elevations and descents of the inner self, the seeker ultimately attains his authentic position within the cosmic order. The journey through the macrocosm and outward travel—practices to which many Sufis were committed—constitute, in essence, the external manifestation of this inward voyage. Difficult passes and arduous paths must be traversed before the seeker finally achieves the long-desired union with purity and absolute truth. Accordingly, since the emergence of Sufism, the concept has consistently been intertwined with travel, spiritual wayfaring, and the process of traversing the mystical path. In the biographies and spiritual narratives of many prominent Sufi masters, the inner journey is accompanied by physical travel across geographical horizons. Moreover, outward travel, with its distinctive characteristics, tempers the seeker through hardship and adversity, thereby preparing the ground for the inner journey. Through ascetic discipline and the numerous hardships experienced during these journeys—undertaken according to specific spiritual etiquette and conditions—the seeker becomes aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the soul and gains the resilience required to endure the trials of the inward path and resist carnal and demonic temptations. Sufi texts, drawing upon Qur’anic verses, the traditions of the Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him), and the teachings of Sufi masters and spiritual authorities, prescribe particular etiquettes and conditions for travel. These range from forming the proper intention and seeking permission from the spiritual guide, to the manner of mounting a steed, preparing necessary provisions, entering and departing from cities and villages, and maintaining appropriate conduct toward fellow travelers. Only through adherence to such spiritual disciplines does travel bring the seeker closer to the Divine; otherwise, it results in estrangement from truth and spiritual corruption.